In the second half of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, when the potential for the development of Polish culture and science was curbed by restrictions imposed by the partitioning powers in the Russian- and Prussian-held parts of the country, an important role in the maintenance of national ties, as well as the exchange of scientific knowledge, and professional achievements and experiences on an international scale, was played by cyclical congresses of scientific asnd socio-professional milieus. A total of sixty five such congresses were held between 1869 and 1914; they were attended by delegates from all the three occupied parts of Poland, representing numerous professional groups and sciences. Thus, for example, congresses of Polish physicians and naturalists brought together specialists from fields as diverse as: anatomy, archaeology, botany, chemistry, pharmacy, philosophy, physics, geology, hygiene, mathematics, psychology, agricultural sciences, veterinary science, forensic medicine, and a variety of medical specializations (surgery, dermatology, gynaecology, dentistry, laryngology, ophthamology, neurology, pediatrics and psychiatiy). Congresses of other professional groups also had such an interdiscplinary character. The congresses were organized and hosted above all by two Polish university centres, Cracow and Lwow (Lemberg), which were situated in the Austrian partition. Four congresses were held in Warsaw, and two in Poznań. The series of congresses was initiated in 1869 by physicians and naturalists. Their meetings were modelled on the example of their German peers, who had held similar congresses regularly since 1822 (the first such congress was organized in Leipzig). The congresses of physicians and naturalists were the most frequent among the congresses of all professional group, but they were not held very regularly. It turned out to be impossible to hold congresses either on an annual basis, as originally planned, or even every three years, as later envisaged. In total, ten congresses of physicians and naturalists from all parts of partitioned Poland were held until the outbreak of World War One. Basing on those congresses, congresses of narrower specializations were held as well: surgeons (seventeen congresses from 1889 to 1911), hygienists (in 1914), psychologists, neurologists nd psychiatrists (in 1909 and 1912), general practitioners (in 1909 and 1914), and balneologists (three congresses: in 1905 . 1909 and 1914).
