Analiza przyczynowa poza metoda eksperymentalna. Dwa przykłady modeli przyczynowych wykraczających poza schemat eksperymentalny (wraz z rozwiązaniami statystycznymi)

The article presents two examples of causal inferences in which theoretical problems exclude a possibility to infer causal relations from effects of experimental manipulation. The first example is a causal inference through mediation analysis. Particular emphasis has been placed on interpretation of direct, total and indi¬rect effects in Structural Equation Modelling. The second example concerns the causal impact of a dependent variable on its own explanatory model. In this example estimation of the causal model parameters can be done through the Linear Mixed Model.