Faecal biomarkers as evidence of human presence in the caves of Kraków-Częstochowa Upland

This study investigates past human presence at cave sites by analysing faecal biomarkers—specifically sterols, bile acids and phosphorus-and compares the results with available archaeological data. The research concentrates on seven sites in the Kraków-Częstochowa Upland (S Poland): Biśnik Cave, Bramka Rockshelter, Ciasna Cave, Łabajowa Cave, Łokietka Cave, Sąspowska Zachodnia Cave, and Shelter in Smoleń III. It involved analysing sediment samples from the stratigraphic sequences of each site. The application of faecal biomarkers allowed us to detect human faecal matter at several distinct stratigraphic levels, aligned with and independent of archaeological evidence. Our findings contributed to existing archaeological data on human occupation in the region and revealed distinct patterns in the presence and distribution of faecal markers. The results highlight the potential of targeting deeper cave areas, particularly Palaeolithic layers, while also identifying key limitations-most notably the low concentrations of bile acids, which hinder interpretation, highlighting the need for further research into the factors influencing biomarker stability in cave contexts.